Invention of currency went back before the time of written history. When studying the history of coins as a medium of exchange, northern Indian indigenous coins are noteworthy. Coins used by tribal people are known as ‘Gana’ or ‘Sanga’were recognized as indigenous coins.[i]
According to literary and archaeological sources, throughout the stages of development of state power in India, indigenous tribal people successfully managed to adapt and protect their independency along with their identity. Indigenous coins can be used to recognize the territories of indigenous groups who survived those times.
Some indigenous coins were even dated back as far as to the time period of 3rd – 1st century BC. These coins were used in stratigraphy dating to determine the relative order of time periods.[ii] The Immigration of Indo-Greeks has influenced these tribal groups to start their own establishment to produce indigenous coins which included the name of their leader on the coins was a remarkable fact. Indigenous coins were declared as one of native coin-type after ‘Purana’[iii] the oldest native coins in India.
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According to the numismatic sources majority of the coins were belonged to 3rd -1st century BC. Indigenous coins were the only reliable sources to study about native clans when there aren’t any relative sources around this time period.[iv] Studying the mottos and the letters used on the coins helped to determine the time period when the coins were issued.
Many of indigenous coins has mottos on them. Clearly, with the influence of Indo-Greek coins indigenous leaders has begun the practice of minting a motto on their coins. Due to the fact of Indo-Greek rulers who were mere foreigners while Indigenous people descended from natives in India, Indian numismatic specialists believed that the indigenous leaders were the first ones to produced coins with mottos in India.
In early 1st century, before the time period of indigenous ruling, Purana coins were used in India as a currency.[v] The designs and symbols used on Purana coins can be identify used on indigenous coins with little modification. Moreover, indigenous coins can be called as a native type of coins produced after Purana in India.
Scholars voiced that even these indigenous coins were punched coins but, the technology used to mint symbols on the coins are distinct than the method used on Purana coins. It could be the result of influence of Indo-Greek rulers. Instead for stamping the symbols one by one, punching the symbols using a pillar with coin dies (two metallic pieces that are used to strike a coin) or casting could be used to mint these indigenous coins. When studying indigenous coins, focusing on indigenous people who mint them and understanding their multitude is important. Issued coins and the symbols minted on them unravel facts about social, economic, political and religious during that time.
Among many indigenous coins, the coins issued by Arjunayana group which was one of noteworthy clans has a special place.[vi] Historical research about the origin of this specific indigenous group showed it has direct roots to the characters of the famous Indian heroic poem, Maha Barth. In other words, this indigenous clan was decent from the heroic figure, Arjun in Maha Barth. Furthermore, according to Samudra guptha’s Alhabd inscription showed that Arjunyana was a neighboring indigenous group of famous Yaudheya clan. [vii]
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There were many symbols on indigenous coins belonged to Arjunyanas. These coins have been classified into a few types due to their limited varieties. Among the coins discovered majority of coins were minted with Lingam, hummed Bull, Mountain, a Tree, Deva figures, female figures, Elephants and Swastika on them.
Coins with above mentioned symbols had mottos in Brahmic letters which were confirmed to be belonged to 100 BC through a scientific evaluation. However, the symbols on the coins were presumed to interpret Hindu religious concepts. To represent Lord Shiva a lingam has been used while his residence the mount Kailash or Imailee was symbolized with a shape of a mountain.[viii] According to scholars the bull indicates Nandi, who known as the vehicle of Lord Shiva, an elephant to represent his son Ganesh and a figure of a goddess to represent his consort Parvathi has been used on the coins.
Aside from group of Arjunayan, there’s another powerful indigenous group called Ujjaini clan. The coins of Ujjainiyans were considered prominent and divided into two types based on coins with and without lettering. John Allen has classified these coins without lettering into six groups.
Many numismatists believed that symbols used in old coins, puranas has been influenced and been an exemplar for Ujjiaini coins. The symbols used in Purana coins can be seen on Ujjiaini coins, but the symbols were arranged in a specific structure. These coins were not minted individualy but as a batch of coins which was a key characteristic of Ujjaini coin production. The coins stand as firm evidence how the rays of Hinduism which appeared in the period of Guptha gradually spread across India without any disrupt even during the age of indigenous ruling.
Ujjiaini coins considered as a valuable resource to study the growth and popularity of Shivaism or the practice mainly focused on worshiping Lord Shiva and Vaishnavism, the faith of Lord Vishnu. Among the symbols minted on the coins Lord Shiva, Maha Kala and lord Karthikey, swastika, Bull, fish (mathsya avatar of Lord Vishnu), the sun and the Bodi tree encircled by the platform (the tree-in-railing) were important.[ix]
Among indigenous coins ‘Eran’ (Eracon) coins consider as another type of special coins and had a special place among punched coins. These coins were very similar to silver Purana coins but, produced with copper and slightly larger. The symbols and words on the obverse and details on Ujjaini coins were indistinguishable. Most of the designs discovered were animal icons like elephant, horse, bull and symbols like swastika, symbol of Torin and the tree encircled by platform.[x]
Among many designs one of them stood out than the rest, the coins with the design of a Bodi tree encircled by the platform or known as the tree-in-railing. During the period of Guptha the Mahayana became powerful giving Buddhism space to reach its voice toward the north Indian territories and scholars believed these coins proved that very fact. Eran coins were the oldest native coins with letters discovered in India.
Coins issued by Odumbar clan, an indigenous group who lived in the area of present Kangra and Tunen districts in Panjab considered to have its own characteristics. On the obverse on square shaped copper coins produced by a ruler named Shivadasa had the design of a tree encircled by a platform. According to Cunningham this particular tree supposed to be a ‘Udumabra’ tree. Some believed that the clan itself named as Udumbar because of the depiction of the Udumabara tree. There was a wavy line just below the design and a front of an elephant on the coin.[xi] A two-storey building with a semicircular shaped roof above the line of pillars minted on the reverse surface of the coin, along with a trident with parushu on it. However, using the design of the building as a resource many facts about Wasthu science, architectural designs and models were collected existed in those days.
The coins issued by indigenous leaders called Maha Deva, Darasena, Aryamitha, Minimithra and Banumithra also discovered. Most of the time these coins were minted with figures of deva (divine deities). The designs were clearly influenced by Indo-Greek culture. The design of Indian god Wishwamithra on coins was without any doubt a result of imitating coin designs of Greek hero, Hercules. Furthermore, designs of Bull, Lotus, Nandipada has been helpful to study the influence of Hinduism during those times.[xii]
Kaushambi, was another indigenous clan who issued many types of special coins. People of Kaushambi had close connection with kingdom of Vatsa (Vansa) during the time of sixteen kingdoms. Kaushambians produced bronze coins with designs like goddess Lakshmi and elephant on the obverse. But the design of Bull was more popular. On reverse of a coin were designs such as the tree, the mountain, symbol of Nandipada, chakra, symbol of Ujjiaini and swastika were used most of the time.[xiii]
The coins minted with design of a mount with Nandipada or Cetiya recognized as special fact, because the mountain was standing on a stage and had a Cathra with the symbol of nandipada inside it which resembled the Buddhist building structure of Cetiya. Cunningham pointed out that the design was clearly a Ceitya, a chathra on top of the mountain. Some Buddhist art critics believed that nandipada represent the triple gems in Buddhism (Buddha, Dhamma, Sanga). If fact as countable one, all these facts helped to get a clear idea of the diversity of religions in those times.
Majority of the Takshila coins had the designs of mount with Chandrawanka, tree-in-railing, swastika, Nandipada, which were commonly seen on punched coins along with the figure of Lakshmi.[xiv]
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When studying coins and notes from Panchala tribal coins, the fact of prioritizing the concepts of religion can be seen. Most of the time the subject minted on reverse of a coin was a figure of a god or a goddess. Along with these designs there were symbols of a bull, a trident on the platform and the sun can be seen. Among the divine figured designs lord of fire, goddess Lakshmi sitting on a lotus, Naga deva, lord Shiva with a trident and lord Vishnu with the Sudarshan chakra were consider as remarkable. These Panchala coins[xv] were valuable resources for understanding the iconology in early history in northern India.
Regarding the study of indigenous coins in northern India Yaudheya clan considered as one of important groups. They were strong enough to protect their power and identity while having a self-governed territory during the fall of Mauryan dynasty and the rise of Guptha dynasty. Yaudheyan coins grouped into three main time periods. The coins belonged to the first era, the time period from Sunga to Kushan were showing tribal characteristics through the design and finishing on them.[xvi]
Second era was the war period between Rudradaman and Kushan which had a weak coin production according to numismatists. However, in the third era Yaudheyan coin production was doing great with the influence of Kushan. To celebrate their victory against Kushans, Yaudheyans produced coins with a design of Lord Karthikey (Murugan) who was known as the lord of the war. [xvii]
John Allen, the Indian numismatist had divided the coins of Yaudheya into six types. First type had the designs such as tree-in-railing, symbol of Eranan, symbol of Saura on the obverse of the coin. Second type of coins were minted with the bull and a pillar-in-railing on obverse while nandipada and an elephant on reverse. Third type of coins had the figure of Karthikey holding a spear on it’s obverse and a goddess on a lotus, a mountain or a shape familiar to Cetiya[xviii] and a flagpole like tree-in-railing on the reverse of the coin.
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Symbols and designs mentioned above concluded the fact that Yaudheya’s main religion was Hinduism and worshiping Karthikey was a popular religious practice. Also, the design of lord Shiva holding a trident could be taken as a factor which indicated that Shivaism had strong influence on the society. Yaudheyan coins were useful to explore wide range of historical facts during that time. [xix]
Coin production in ancient India used the method of punching to produce Purana coins. But, instead of punching the coins one by one using a die to mint coins or casting became stranded methods which recognized as a development of coining technology in India.
More accurate data of tribal clans, their society and their domain can be collected through the study of the indigenous coins and numismatic resources. Furthermore, the symbols and designs used on coins described more about politics, economy, social facts and religions in that time period.
Production, usage and popularity of indigenous coins in northern India adapted according to their traditions while strategically protect their identity and culture can be seen through the study of indigenous coins. The facts discussed through this essay proved that even though the indigenous groups had a huge influence from other major traditions their attempt to carry on their own traditions, identity and religion centered culture was a success.
K. M. G. Arjuan Manage
[i] Pranabananda Jash, (2008) Coins and Culture of Early North India, ISBN 9788177021737.p. 20-29. https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/coins-and-culture-of-early-north-india-nay664/
[ii] Terry R. Hardaker, (1975) The origins of coinage in northern India, The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Seventh Series, Vol. 15 (1975), Published By: Royal Numismatic Society. pp. 200-203.
[iii] āļ´ී.āļāļŊ්. āļ´්āļģේāļ¸āļිāļŊāļ, (2001), āļ´ුāļģාāļĢ āļāļą්āļ¯ිāļēාāˇේ āļාāˇි, āˇ්āļģී āļŊංāļා āˇංāˇ්āļෘāļිāļ āˇාāˇ්āļ්āļģාāļēāļāļąāļē, āļ´ිāļ§ු 25-27'
[iv] Ibid. p. 27.
[v] Chakrabortty, S. K. 1935-36. Tribal Coins of Northern lndia. Ni.rmismatie Supplement XLVI, Jourral of RoyalAsiatic Society ll. Reprinted. lndological Book House, Varanasi. P. 12-14.
[vi] Earle, Timothy 1991. The Evolution of Chiefdoms. ln Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and tdeotogy (Earle, Timothy ed.):. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. p 1-15
[vii] Gopal, Lallanji 1977. Foreword. ln Seminar Papers an the Tribal Coins of'Ancient lndia, c. 200 BC tc'400 AD(Singh, Jai Prakash and NisarAhmad eds.): Departmentof Ancient lndian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. p. vii-xii.
[viii] Gupta, Parmeshwari Lal 1951 . Bearing of the numismatics on the history of the tribal republics in an:ient lndia. I ndian Historical Quarterly XXVI l: 197 -209.
[ix] Sircar, D. C. 1968. Studles in lndian Coins. MotilalBanarsidass, Delhi. P. 15-16.
[x] Parashar-Sen, Alok 2007. Localities, Coins and the Transition to the Early State in Deccan. Sfudles in History XXlll (2): 231-69.
[xi] Fried, Morton H. 1966. On the Concepts of 'Tribe'and'Tribal society'. Transactions of the NewYork Academy of Sclences, Series ll 28: 527-40.
[xii] Joshi, Maheshwar P. 2005. Kumaon and Garhwal: State and Society. ln The State and Society in Medievallndla (Grewal, J. S. ed.):. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. P. 292-312
[xiii] Allan, J. 1936 (Reprinted 1975). Catalogueof the Coinsof Ancient Indla. British Museum, London and Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, New Delhi. P. 18-21.
[xiv] Ibid.
[xv] Dasgupta, Kalyan Kumar 1974. A Tribal History of Ancient lndia: A Numismatic Approach. Nabablrarat Publishers, Calcutta. P. 56.
[xvi] Gopal, Lallanji 1977. Foreword. ln Seminar Papers an the Tribal Coins of'Ancient lndia, c. 200 BC tc'400 AD(Singh, Jai Prakash and NisarAhmad eds.): vii-xii. Departmentof Ancient lndian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. P. 66.
[xvii] āļ´ී.āļāļŊ්. āļ´්āļģේāļ¸āļිāļŊāļ, (2001), āļ´ුāļģාāļĢ āļāļą්āļ¯ිāļēාāˇේ āļාāˇි, āˇ්āļģී āļŊංāļා āˇංāˇ්āļෘāļිāļ āˇාāˇ්āļ්āļģාāļēāļāļąāļē, āļ´ිāļ§ු 28'
[xviii] Ibid.
[xix] Dasgupta, Kalyan Kumar 1974. A Tribal History of Ancient lndia: A Numismatic Approach. Nabablrarat Publishers, Calcutta. P. 44.
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